Muhammad: A Repository of Early Christian Heresy

 

    During the early centuries of Christianity, Arabia became a refuge for various Christian heretical groups and sects as they were rejected by the mainstream church. (Slade, D. M. (2014). Arabia Haeresium Ferax (Arabia Bearer of Heresies): Schismatic Christianity’s Potential Influence on Muhammad and the Qur’an. American Theological Inquiry, 7(1), 43-53.) This was partly due to the region's geographic and cultural position as a crossroads between the Byzantine Empire to the north and the Sassanian Empire to the east, as well as its proximity to trade routes that facilitated the movement of ideas and people.

A quick reference of some Christian heresies present in the area:

Docetism: A Christian heresy that asserts Jesus Christ only appeared to have a human body and suffer, but in reality, he was purely divine and his physical form was an illusion.

Monarchianism: A theological belief emphasizing the oneness of God, rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity.

Ebionitism: A Jewish Christian movement that believed Jesus was the Messiah and prophet but denied his divinity, and adhered to Jewish law.

    The Quran is already widely known to incorporate the writings and beliefs of various Christian heretical sects that lived in Arabia at the time. (Howell, R. Islam as a Heresy: Christendom’s Ideological Views of Islam.) In the Quran, there is an assertion that Jesus did not die on the cross but only appeared to do so. It is possible that this was influenced by Docetism or similar ideas circulating among early Christian heretical groups. The relevant Quranic verse is Surah 4:157, which states:

"And for boasting, “We killed the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, the messenger of Allah.” But they neither killed nor crucified him—it was only made to appear so. Even those who argue for this ˹crucifixion˺ are in doubt. They have no knowledge whatsoever—only making assumptions. They certainly did not kill him."

Docetism, from the Greek word "dokein," meaning "to seem," proposed that Jesus only seemed to be human and his physical body and suffering were an illusion. This belief arose in the early centuries of Christianity, with various sects, such as the Marcionites and certain Gnostic groups, adopting this perspective (Ehrman, B. D. (2003). Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford University Press). The Quranic verse Surah 4:157 aligns with the Docetist notion that Jesus did not actually suffer and die on the cross but rather that it only appeared so to the onlookers. The idea of Jesus' apparent death fits within the broader framework of beliefs that deny the true physical suffering and death of Jesus, which was a key element of Docetism.

    Additionally, the Quranic denial of the Trinity and emphasis on the singularity of God mirrors the anti-Trinitarian stance of early heretical sects like Monarchianism, which held that God is one person as opposed to the orthodox Christian understanding of God as a Trinity. This perspective, rejecting the divinity of Jesus as a separate entity and the Holy Spirit as part of the Godhead, aligns with Islamic theology's strict monotheism called Tawhid.

    Considering the Docetist view of the crucifixion in the Quran, this would be tantamount to a passive claim to the divinity of Jesus, albeit in a Monarchist, heretical sense. The idea of Jesus being a divine figure who did not truly suffer or die would be consistent with a high Christology found in certain Gnostic and Docetic beliefs, where Jesus is seen more as a divine being rather than a human one who underwent physical suffering.

    In fact, the Quran asserts Jesus as the "Word of Allah" and a "Spirit from Allah." Yet, contrary to Christian doctrine, Islam does not distinguish these as different parts of a Godhead, but maintains the Monarchist (Tawhid) unity of God. Furthermore, it denies in absolute terms that God would become flesh, or have a son in the flesh - two explicitly Docetic views. Yet it plainly asserts that Christ lived, however as "a spirit" which is, by definition, incorporeal.

    Surah 4:171 "People of the Book, do not go to excess in your religion, and do not say anything about God except the truth: the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, was nothing more than a messenger of God, His word, directed to Mary, a spirit from Him. So believe in God and His messengers and do not speak of a ‘Trinity’- stop [this], that is better for you- God is only one God, He is far above having a son, everything in the heavens and earth belongs to Him and He is the best one to trust."

    Moreover, the influence of other heretical sects, such as the Ebionites, who viewed Jesus as a prophet but not divine, could also be seen in Islam’s depiction of Jesus as a significant prophet and messenger but not the Son of God. The Ebionites, a Jewish-Christian sect, adhered to Jewish laws and rejected Pauline Christianity's teachings, aligning with Islamic views that respect Jesus as a prophet and uphold strict monotheism.

    The Quran's emphasis on dietary laws and ceremonial washings, such as the prohibition of consuming pork and adherence to certain food regulations also finds resonance with the practices of the Ebionites, which strongly advocated both. The Ebionites, as Jewish Christians, maintained adherence to Jewish dietary laws and other customs while accepting Jesus as a prophet. The Islamic dietary laws and washing reflect a continuity with these Ebionite practices, suggesting a historical connection in the region's religious milieu. (Thomas, D. (2008). Christian Doctrines in Islamic Theology. Brill). 

    It should be noted that John of Damascus, one of the earliest Christians to mention Muhammad, characterizes Islam as a heresy of other Christian heresies. (D. Sahas, John of Damascus on Islam: The “Heresy of the Ishmaelites” (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1972), pg.78.  Muhammad, as an illiterate individual involved in both trade and raids on caravans, would have encountered many divergent beliefs about Jesus. Without the ability to read or access various texts directly, his understanding of these beliefs would have relied on oral traditions and teachings from the diverse groups he interacted with. This exposure likely contributed to the patchwork of ideas reflected in the Quran, which includes elements from various minority Christian sects. (Hoyland, R. G. (2001). Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge).

    Vestiges of interaction with other heretical groups are also present in the Quran, such as the claim that Mary is member of the Holy Trinity (Quran 5:116). One only has the choices that Muhammad either severely misunderstood veneration of saints, or else he authentically encountered a group that held this position, although the historicity of such a group is debated. Nevertheless, to consider this view as the standard Christian understanding of the Godhead is a gross miscalculation - and if the Quran were truly the literal words of God to mankind, it is strange that this critique of a supposed heretical sect is offered as the general criticism of Christianity as whole when that has never been the doctrine of the Christian Church at large.

    The blending of these various heretical beliefs into the fabric of early Islamic teachings suggests that Muhammad and the early Muslim community were exposed to a diverse array of Christian doctrines, including those deemed overtly heretical by the orthodox Church. This confluence of ideas could have contributed to the development of Islamic theology, particularly its views on Jesus and the nature of God. 

    While Docetists and Ebionites held different Christologies that are divergent from one another, if one does not believe in the authentic prophethood of Muhammad, there is no need to pre-suppose an internal consistency or logical framework within it. The amalgamation of various heterodox beliefs without coherent harmonization is exactly what one might expect from a 7th-century illiterate shepherd exposed to a diverse array of Christian and Jewish beliefs. The efforts to systematize and harmonize these heterodox beliefs were part of the later development of Islamic theology.

    In conclusion, the presence of Docetist ideas in the Quran, alongside other heretical Christian beliefs, highlights how early Islamic theology seems to have been shaped by the heterodox Christian landscape of Arabia. The rejection of Jesus' crucifixion, the denial of the Trinity, and the strict monotheism of Islam all find parallels in the various Christian heresies that thrived in the Arabian Peninsula during Muhammad's time. Any internal consistency is unnecessary within the Quran is unnecessary to assert this, if one believes the Quran has natural origins.